Tsar Peter the Great (1682-1725) had an interest in ancient artifacts. It was him who started the discovery of the Scythians
Tsar Peter initiated expeditions to discover artifacts in Siberia. This was the birth of modern archeology.
the 18 century was the height of the expeditions: kurgans were being dug to find ancient artifacts.
around this time Herodotus’s Histories was translated into Russia. This book contains much information on the Scythians
still at this time the Russians were not too familiar with the Scythians. For example, they dug up a kurgan and found a sword which they ascribed to the Sassanians
Excavations Near The Black Sea (Pontic-Caspian Steppe)
in 1830, an expedition to Kul-Oba near the Black Sea and Caucasus, led to the arguably the biggest discovery in a dug up kurgan of a Scythian king: a gold vessel depicting long-haired big-bearded Scythians, with their spears, bows and arrows, and most importantly their famous pointed hats, etc
this gave the Russians the first clear look at the Scythian people and finally established the Scythians as real people in the eyes of the Russian academics
the structure of the burial vessel/tomb was Greek in nature, suggesting a Greek architect built it for the Scythian king. This makes perfect sense considering many of the cities straddling the Black Sea on the Caucasus/Steppe side were actually Greek cities
in 1853 another expedition a bit father away from the Black Sea (Alexandropol) was sent to dig up a massive Kurgan. They found 15 horse burials with gold bridles
Herodotus wrote about how the Scythians would bury their horses with their leaders
there were many more expeditions and burials throughout the 19th century. Many items dug up were the work of Greek craftmanship suggesting the Scythian elites employed Greek workers
the last excavation was in 1912 where they found a gold comb depicting a battle. The Scythian warrior is wearing Greek armor.
lots of animal art was discovered in these kurgans
Due to WW1 and the Russian Revolution, excavations were temporarily halted
Excavations in Siberia
many excavations were done in the early 1800s in Siberia
since Siberia is so cold, many of the organic items in the kurgans were preserved by permafrost (freezing of the ground beneath the mound)
Chinese silk was found in these kurgans, reminding us of the cultural connectivity these nomadic people had
the remains of Scythian mummies and dead horses were well preserved
many of the human remains were of tattooed individuals
many of these burials date to anytime in the 1st millennium BC
arguably the biggest discovery in this region was the presence of animal art almost the same as the animal art found in the Pontic-Caspian expeditions.
this indicates a cultural continuum between these two regions: were they the same people? Were they a related people? When and where did their art originate? These questions will be answered throughout the book
the remains in the kurgan in Siberia are much older than those of the Pontic Steppe, suggesting the Scythians migrated westward
Scythian Academics
starting around 1920, Scythian works were being published and Scythian academics truly came onto the scene
the works of Mikhail Rostovtzeff and Ellis Minns were some of the first in the English language on this topic
Saka People
in the area of modern day Kazakhstan lived another group called the Saka, who were known for their many encounters with the great Persian Empire
in Bisitun Iran, there’s a relief carved into a cliff depicting Skuka, the king of the Saka in handcuffs, a prisoner of king Darius
Sarmatian People
excavations in Filippovka (modern day Bashkortostan Russia) revealed 26 kurgans dating to the 4-5th century BC
experts agree that these are associated with the Sarmatian people, a group who eventually ousted the Scythians from their Pontic homeland
Other
Scythian gold belt buckle. It shows the Tree of Life, with a goddess comforting a dead hero. The quiver handing on the tree symbolizes the marriage between the goddess and the hero, thus completing the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth
Important Notes
we must remember that the Scythians and all the other horse-riders of Eurasia were NOMADS, therefore they moved a lot. Because of this, it’s very hard to determine ethnic and cultural lines. Deciphering their history is a complex task. These groups moved from place to place very quickly so the archeological evidence can only show us small glimpses into their life and society
2: The Scythians as Others Saw Them
In the Eyes of the Greeks
in the 8th century BC, Hesiod and Homer were aware of the people living north of the Black Sea, they called them Hippemolgi (mare-milkers) and Galactophagi (curd-eaters).
these people didn’t grow grain, hence the names given to them
the 8th century BC was around the time the Greeks began exploring north of the Black Sea, so they definitely came into contact with Scythians, Kimmerians, and other related groups
For Ephoros, a Greek writing in the 4th century, the Scythians were one of the four great barbarian people, the others being Celts, Libyans, and Persians
many Greek paintings, pottery, and other art depict the Scythians with their famous pointed hats - p. 52-53
the Greeks living in the colonies (especially around 6th century) had frequent contact with the Scythians, they traded, they married each other, etc. On the other hand, the mainland Greeks viewed the Scythians as barbarians, drunkards, and calling another Greek as ‘Scythian’ was viewed as a bad insult - p. 54
the other Barbarians like the Celts and Germans had the same reputation
Kimmerians and Assyrians
the Kimmerians were a closely related Iranic group who spoke Scythian too. They were the predecessors of the Scythians
today, “the Crimea” is named after this group
in the 5th century BC, the Greek historian Herodotus writes about the Kimmerians/Cimmerians and how the Scythians replaced them a few centuries earlier in the 7th century
the Assyrians wrote about the Kimmerians on their Cuneiform tablets. The Kimmerians supported the Urartians in the Assyria-Urartu conflict
Urartu controlled modern day Armenia
The Kimmerians were mainly active in the region of Asian Minor and Armenia (close to the Caucasus). On the other hand, the Scythians were active in Central Asia, north-east of the Persian Medes territory
after collapse of Assyrian rule in the late 7th century with the rise of the Babylonians, the Scythians took this as an opportunity to attack the Medes. They were successful and for a few decades the Scythians controlled basically the entire middle east, even going as far as Egypt where they were bought off by the Pharaoh
Greek Colonies/Cities
by the end of the 6th century, the Greeks established cities all through the coast of Asia minor and the Caucasus, surrounding the entire Black Sea
likely it’s simply because their population outgrew their homeland
these Greeks living in the colonies came face to face with the nomadic steppe tribes and Scythians, and their relationship was mainly a peaceful one with lots of trading between them. It was a mutually beneficial relationship. They also inter-married
on the other hand, mainland Greeks despised the Scythians for the most part
Rise of Persia
in the 6th century, 539BC king Cyrus conquered the entire middle east and Asia minor stretching from Greece to the Indus Valley
he came into contact with the nomadic Saka people. Herodotus recorded these people as Scythian
The Saka were living in Central Asia, modern day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan
there were 2 distinct Saka people living in this area
the Persians conquered most of the Saka territory
King Cyrus was defeated and killed by the Massagetai who lived father north in Central Asia
a Saka king is depicted on the carvings in Bisitun, distinguished by his tall pointed hat
in the late 6th century, Cyrus’s grandson King Darius began his European expedition to conquer the third Saka group living on the pontic steppe (north of the Black Sea). Darius abandoned the campaign after some defeats and mishaps
Herodotus
much of our history and knowledge of Scythians comes from this man
he identified 7 distinct tribes of Scythians
Callipedae: Graeco-Scythian. Intermarriage between Greeks and Scythians produced this group
Royal Scythians: the bravest of the Scythian tribes
more on page 49
another group identified was the Sauromatae
they were a non-Scythian people who spoke Scythian, albeit poorly
they were the descendants of the Amazons and Scythians, hence why they regarded women as having a high status
the Massagetai were considered a Scythian group
King Philip of Macedon & Scythians
king Philip (Alexander’s father) in the 4th century conquered large swaths of the Balkans and went to war with the Scythians. It was a tough battle but the Macedonians came out on top
the Macedonians took many horses and 20k Scythian women
he married a Scythian woman who was buried with him, like the daughter of the Scythian king he defeated in battle
it was a brief encounter. Philip died shortly after. His son Alexander never dared to go against the Scythians, instead focusing on Persians to the south and Indians to the east
3: Landscapes with People
this chapter mainly covers the following:
landscape of the Eurasian Steppes, where the Scythians lived, and various weather, geographical, etc, features of the land
domestication of the horse
the Scythians lived in the Eurasian Steppe, a land that connected the complex empires to the south with the hunter-gatherer societies to the north. Therefore a lot of commodities and ideas flowed through into the Steppe societies
due to weather patterns, it was very common to migrate westwards, into the Balkans/Eastern Europe from the Central Asian Steppes
even the Yamnaya followed this migration pattern - p. 69
Late Bronze Age: 1800-1200BC
there were two main nomadic Steppe cultures: Srubnaya in the Pontic Caspian area, and Andronovo in Central Asia
further south near the Amu Darya river was the BMAC (Bactrian Margiana Archeological complex) culture who acted as the middle-man facilitating exchanges between the nomads and complex states to the south
these cultures were nomadic, but more of a sedentary type of nomadic groups
Final Bronze Age: 1200-850BC
another period of weather changes (increasing aridity/dryness) led to a lot of upheaval for the nomadic steppe cultures
they had to migrate to greener pastures to continue feeding their animals. This led to conflict and even warfare between competing groups for good land
on the other hand, far into the east in the Minusinsk Basin, the weather was actually getting better, more humid and cooler which led to lush vegetation and improved grazing lands
this led to flocks and herds increasing in size, as well as a population explosion among humans in the area
the increase in population led to more complicated social hierarchies (until this point, most nomadic steppe people didn’t recognize royalty or elites in their societies)
back on the Pontic Steppe, the population DECREASED due to the increase in aridity
it was all this climate upheaval that led to the increase in the nomadic lifestyle (up until this point the steppe people were mainly living a sedentary lifestyle) and dependence on horses even more than before… which ultimately gave birth to highly mobile predatory nomad hordes: the Scythians
4: Enter the Predatory Nomads
800s-600s BC (9th to 7th centuries) is the birth of the Scythians
the term ‘Scythian’ was used by ancient Greek writers to refer to a people settled in the Pontic Steppe who came from the east
in the area, there were many communities and cultures, many of which shared elements in common. How connected were these people? This is the focus of this current chapter
the common migratory route for the nomadic Steppe people was from east to west, stopping in Hungary because that is where the Steppes ended. There horses wouldn’t be able to travel as easily further west so they didn’t care to go that far
many groups throughout history followed this route: Kimmerians, Scythians, Alans, Huns, Mongols, etc
The Scythian Triad
these are the 3 characteristics that define the Scythians:
their particular style of elite burials
use of bow and arrow in fighting from horseback
highly distinctive animal art
Before the Scythians
the Tagar culture lived in the eastern Steppes. They lived before the Scythians
many cultural elements of the Scythians came from the Tagar
The Kimmerians lived in the Pontic Steppe and were ousted by the Scythians
5: The Rise of the Pontic Steppe Scythians. 700-200BC
High Level Overview of the First Millennium BC
the Scythians arrived after the Kimmerians in the mid 8th century (750s)
at the end of the 5th century (400s) the Sauromatae moved from the east towards the west, bringing about changes in the culture
at the beginning of the 2nd century (100s) the Sarmatians brought the rule of the Scythians/Sauromatians to an end
we can split up the Scythian period into 3 stages:
early/archaic: 750-600
middle: 600-400
late: 400-200
it was during the middle period that Scythians became more sedentary and agriculturalist
it was at the start of the late period that the Sauromatae entered Scythian territory
Origins
Herodotus says that the Scythians originated in the eastern part of Central Asia and moved to the Pontic Steppe (then the home of Kimmerians) because of conflict with the Massagetai
archeology agrees with this assessment
Early Scythian Activity
a group of Scythians likely settled in the Caucasus near the borders of the Assyrian and Medes empires
this gave them access to Near Eastern art, horses, weapons, and even women
many Scythian kurgans in the Steppe/Caucasus had Near Eastern style items, suggesting that Near Eastern craftsmen were taken captive and highly valued by the Scythian elite
it is recorded in Assyrian tablets that Scythians were involved in various wars and conflicts
End of the Scythians
the Sauromatians entered Scythian lands during the ‘late’ period
the Scythians were forced to move even further west and had a confrontation with King Philip in 339BC, in which they were defeated
the period of Sauromatian dominance did not change the culture of the Pontic Steppe too much, afterall they were technically a Scythian-type of people. This is why we call their period of time “late Scythian”
ultimately, it was the Sarmatians, those that came after the Sauromatians, who according to Diodorus, wiped out large amounts of the Scythian population. The Scythian world ended by about 200BC - p. 144-145
Sauromatians
per Herodotus they lived to the east of the Don river, north of the Caspian Sea
per Herodotus they were descendants of Scythian men and Amazon women from Cappadocia, which would explain why they spoke a Scythian dialect and why women played a large role in their society
“the women of the Sauromatae, frequently hunt on horseback with their husbands, sometimes even unaccompanied, in war taking the field, and wearing the same clothes as the men… Their marriage law states that no girl shall wed until she has killed a man in battle. Sometimes it happens that a woman is unmarried in old age having never been able, in her whole lifetime, to meet this condition.” - p. 122
archeology supports this: they are plenty of burials of rich and prominent Sauromatian women along with their warrior equipment
the Sauromatians had a distinct burial style. It as more like catacombs than traditional kurgans - p. 139
Sauromatians vs Sarmatians
often these two peoples are treated as they same. Many ancient writers thought so. The archeological and other historical records don’t help solve this riddle either.
possibilities:
Sarmatians were another nomadic horde further in the east that replaced the Sauromatians eventually
they were the same, and the Sauromatians were simply an off-shoot/specific tribal name for the Sarmatians living in the west
they were indeed the same and completely interchangeable terms
likely the first possibility is the most accurate
Sarmatians
the Sarmatians entered the scene by the end of the 4th century, replacing the Sauromatians in their homeland
the Sarmatians were likely a branch of the Massagetai who occupied the region to the east of the Caspian Sea (modern day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan)
Bosporan Kingdom
in the 5th century (about 440BC), the Greek colonies formed an alliance and established the Bosporan Kingdom. It quickly became independent of Athens
due to their location, they had the ability to trade with both Scythians and Sauromatians
they started off as fully Greek, but later we see Scythian burial practices indicting there was a lot of intermixing between the two groups
due to influence of the Bosporan kingdom, many Scythian and Sauromatian burials had Greek influences, such as the Great Bliznitsa Kurgan which has a painting of the Greek goddess Demeter, likely related to the Eleusinian cult / mysteries - p. 142-143
6: Crossing the Carpathians
Carpathian mountains = a mountain range in Ukraine, Romania, Poland, and Slovakia that separates Ukraine from Hungary
Carpathian basin = the Hungarian steppe plain
the Carpathians created a boundary to the westerly advance of the Scythians, but there were still many avenues to cross
Pre-Scythian Migrations to Carpathian Basin
in the 3rd millennium, around 2800BC, the Yamnaya crossed via the lower Danube (in Transylvania/Wallachia) and settled in the Hungarian Steppe
the next major influx happened in the 9th and 8th centuries BC and they created the Mezocsat Culture
these people were contemporary with Kimmerians
Scythians in the Carpathian Basin
there are many burial sites where Scythian weapons and artifacts were uncovered in the Carpathian Basin
this is around 6th and 5th century = middle Scythian period
there were two groups of distinct Scythians in the region: Transylvanian and Hungarian
the Scythians living in the Transylvanian enclave were called “Agathyrsae” by Herodotus and he said they were “a race of men very luxurious and fond of wearing gold on their persons” - p. 152
the Hungarian Scythians have been named the Vekerzug Culture, Herodotus called them “Sigynnae”
map on page 154 shows the Steppe and the Scythian lands
the Carpathian Scythians likely stayed in touch with Pontic Scythians via trade
Scythian Interactions with the “West”
the Scythians in the Carpathian basin had interactions with western cultures such as the central European “Hallstatt Culture” via trade
the Scythian horses were sought after. They were much better than European horses
Scythians also conducted small-scale raids on various central and eastern European peoples
the Hallstatt culture, after being exposed to Scythians, adopted some of their burial practices
the Scythians influenced Celtic art
below is a picture of a Celtic flagon found in France which dates to the 4th century. The animal on the handle is strongly reminiscent of Scythian animal art:
the ‘battling animals’, or animals facing each other, is a common Scythian motif found in Celtic art like below:
it’s safe to say the Scythians influenced various cultures around central/eastern Europe
7: Scythians in Central Asia. 700-200BC
the Ural mountains is considered the border/divide between European/Pontic Scythians and Central Asian Scythians
The People
the Greeks had little knowledge of the peoples living east of the Urals and the Caspian Sea, the Persian records are sparse too. What we do know about the various peoples in that area is as follows:
the Argippaeans spoke their own language, but dressed like Scythians
the Issedonians were allegedly cannibals (there is little evidence to support this)
the Massagetai lived east of the Caspian (modern Turkmenistan)
there were two distinct groups of Saka: Saka Tigrakhauda and Saka Haumavarga
the Saka and Massagetai were almost certainly Scythian tribes, the other two we’re less certain about
map of the Scythian world in the 6th-5th century BC:
Pontic (north of Black Sea) = Scythian
north of Caspian Sea = Sauromatae, later Sarmatians
this was a small strip of land north of the Sea and south of the Ural mountains
this was a prized area: it was fertile land fed by various rivers. Also, whoever controlled this area, controlled all trade between east and west
north-east of Caspian Sea = Massagetai
north of Syr Darya = Saka Haumavarga
south of Amu Darya (within Persian Empire) = Saka Tigrakhauda
Interactions with Persian Empire
the Saka Tigrakhauda had lots of interaction and trade with the Persians. Their main commodity were their superior horses which they would exchange for Persian luxurious goods like jewellery, weapons, vessels, and fine textiles
there is a relief carves in Persepolis, Iran, showing Saka ambassadors bringing gifts such as horses and riding cloaks to the Persian king
these luxurious goods helped fuel the Saka social hierarchies. Arguable without such trade, the social hierarchy of Saka tribes would collapse - p. 172
the Persian Achaemenid Empire would hire Saka warriors, specifically mounted archers which were highly valued by the Persian
8: Bodies Clothed in Skins
Pseudo-Hippocrates describes the Scythian lifestyle in great detail, but it was much exaggerated. Like most in this time, he wanted to differentiate the civilized urban Greeks from the uncivilized nomad
Scythian Appearance
Pseudo-Hippocrates described them as obese and beardless. Neither is supported by evidence
the two above artifacts are great examples. Scythians are shown has having big beards and slim. Literally the OPPOSITE of what Pseudo-Hippocrates
the dress style of the Pontic Scythians was practically the same as Central Asian Scythians (such as Saka)
they wore a belted tunic, trousers, and a pointed hat
tattooing was common for males and females
a male that was well-preserved in a kurgan had his arms, shoulders, and legs converted in tattoos of animals which extended to his chest and back. Deer, donkey, a fanged carnivore, fish, were all included. Looked something similar to the below:
a female had animal tattoos on one of her shoulders and her wrist and thumb
contemporary writings also attest to this: Pomponius Mela, writing about the Agathyrsae (Scythian tribe) during the 1st century AD said “they draw over the face and body… drawing which even washing cannot remove”
Pliny wrote about the Sarmatians “they paint their bodies” likely referring to tattoos
ceremonial scarring / self-mutilation was also a thing for Scythians
Pseudo-Hippocrates talks about it; it likely was a coming-of-age ritual
Herodotus talks about self-mutilation as a funeral rite (similar to Shias)
there are two methods of self-cleaning (they didn’t shower or take baths with water apparently)
sauna with hemp. So they got high + got clean
the women created a paste made of cypress, cedar, and frankincense wood with water, then applied it to their entire bodies and left it on for a whole day. Once removed, their skin was clean and glossy
the Scythians clearly cared for their appearance
they style of dress was often quite lavish
the women commonly had pierced ears
the women styled their hair often with horse hair as extensions
men and women used combs
Shelter / Homes
they were nomads so they didn’t build cities
they travelled with their wagons which provided shelter.
they also had tents with they carried around and setup wherever they were settling (like yurts)
they used 4 legged tables for food. These acts as ‘plates’ and they ate off them. They likely sat on the ground or on tree stump stools
Social Structure
different Scythian groups had different customs. We know the most about the Pontic “Royal Scythians” so this is we’ll look at here
they were ruled by a king who often had multiples wives for political alliances. Therefore polygyny was an acceptable practice (at least for men in power)
below the king were nomarchs (land owners) and ‘nobles’. Then you skilled men such as scepter bearers, spear bearers and soothsayers. Then you had ordinary people. Then slaves.
so they did an intricate system of social hierarchy
the kingship was hereditary, a son was always the next king. But the kingship could be contested by other sons
page 217 has the story of king Skyles being killed by his half-brother
a new king acquiring his father’s wives was acceptable as well.
page 217 has the story of king Skyles marrying his father’s wife
the king’s wives were NOT killed to join him in the grave, rather the king’s concubines, slaves, servants, were killed instead
blood brotherhood was a common practice. This was a sacred bond between warriors
they drank together from a vessel of wine and their own blood. This was how it was initiated. As depicted in the below image
warfare was celebrated; the more enemies you killed, the more wine you’d get in a yearly ceremony/meeting for warriors
Gender Roles
gender roles was different than from what Herodotus and other Greeks were used to. Gender roles were more fluid in Scythian societies
the Sauromatian women were warriors as long as they remained virgins. They had to kill 3 enemies before they could get married - p. 219
the story of the Amazons comes from the Scythian women
even the lack of one breast, which is depicted in Wonder Women, is historical: Scythians mothers would cauterize their daughters’ right breast to stop it from developing so all the strength would go to the right shoulder and arm.
many Scythian women remain unmarried in old age indicating letting go of the traditionally male role was hard for some women
some Scythian tribes were led by a female warrior queen, such the Saka being led by Queen Tomyris
the group known as Issedonians had an equal sharing of power between male and female members
eunuchs existed and they performed female work. They were called Andrieis (effeminates).
the Scythians attributed their impotence to god and venerated such people, fearing that a similar fate might befall them
some of these eunuchs had powers of prophecy and shamanism
Animals
The Chertomlyk Amphora depicts animal training:
Scythians rode with herds of sometimes up to a thousand animals. The more animals you had, the higher your status often was
horses were the most important animal of the herd, used for riding, milking and meat
horse milk was used to create a fermented drink called koumiss
sheep were the next most important; used for meat, milk, cheese and their wool for clothing
cattle and goats were less popular
cattle require lots of water, which on the Steppe might be hard to access
Leisure
home crafts were often done by women, such as knitting and creating carpets. Some of these would’ve taken over a year to make due to how intricate they are
hunting was done by men and women horse-riders
the furs of leopard, steppe cat, sable, and otter were found in kurgans. These are hunted animals
The Kul-Oba gold plaque depicts a hunter about to spear a hare:
the Sachnovka kurgan gold plaque shows people playing instruments like a lyre:
it was used in rituals and ceremonies most likely, but also just for leisure after a long day of riding
wine was a big part of leisure, as described many many times by Greek authors in a disparaging way
the 6th century Greek poet Anacreon used the phrase “get ourselves as drunk as Scythians” - p. 227
the Pontic Scythians commonly drunk GREEK wine. Scythians father away had to stick with koumiss, a drink that has lower alcohol content.
Because of this, likely the “drunk Scythian” was a product of interaction with the west/Greek world
9: Bending the Bow
aggression is an innate part of being human; you naturally want to protect your own people, it’s in our genetics.
this is why societies develop rules and laws; to keep this aggression in check
another outlet for this aggression is games, sports, or other activities. Hunting was a common one for Scythians
the game of buzkashi of Central Asia comes from hunting, so does horse-racing, wrestling, etc
another form of this aggression was raiding, which was popular among Scythian groups
raids also took place due to other factors like climate change (looking for new pastures), population growth (the community can’t sustain itself any longer), etc
raids provided an opportunity for warriors to become known and become leaders. It developed the social hierarchy
the horse saddle was a 7th century Scythian invention
Warfare
Scythians waged wars and went on raids on horseback with saddles (page 238 has pictures)
a technique they used which was popularized by the Parthians who came later (called ‘Parthian Shot’) was where the Scythians would ‘retreat’ and as the enemy was pursuing them they’d veer to the left and shoot arrows into the enemy columns
Scythian elite, like kings, had a squire, i.e. someone who would serve them on the battlefield, carrying weapons and armor
gallery #1 shows the gold beaker that has 4 images. Potentially 2 are pre-battle and 2 are post-battle
pre-battle, shows a warrior stringing a bow, then shows 2 men discussing carrying their spears and shields
post-battle shows a man with his finger in another man’s mouth, seeming to treat a wound while the other image shows a man bandaging another man’s leg
battle scenes are commonly shown on Scythian artifacts, like the comb (gallery #5)
their main battle regiment was cavalry units
the Old Testament references them (Jeremiah 6:23)
sometimes the Scythian army had their whole tribe with them in their wagons and the women & children watched the battle like a spectator sport
this was a practice by some Celts too
the Scythians were commonly hired as mercenaries by near eastern empires like Persia and Lydia
Post-Warfare Activities
in order to determine compensation from battle, the Scythian soldiers would either bring the heads or the scalps of the enemies he killed in battle to his king
as a sign of valor, some Scythians would hang their enemies’ scalps on their horses or create cloaks by sewing scalps together
it was customary to drink the blood of your first kill
for very detested enemies, like a relative in a feud, they’d turn the skull into a drinking cup or line it with gold and put it on display
every year during the communal ‘meeting’, those that killed an enemy had a right to drink from the communal wine bowl, shaming those that didn’t kill any enemies
it’s important to note that these barbaric practices were done by many of their contemporaries in the so-called ‘barbarian’ world: Germanics, Celts, etc
Weapons & Equipment
the Scythians were most famous for using a short bow and arrows
they used a gorytos to store their arrows. It was a quiver that is carried on the left hand side of your belt
it was commonly decorated in gold
depicted in various Scythian artifacts:
they were known to poison their arrows with a snake venom concoction
their arrow heads were built with a hook near the base, making it damaging to pull out of shields and deadly to pull out of wounds
they also used spears, commonly 2m in length, but sometimes they used lances that were 3m in length (more common among mounted warriors)
swords and daggers were used in close combat
maces and battleaxes were used, but less commonly
whips were used even in combat. If you ran out of arrows and your spear/lance was broken, you’d pull out your whip!
light shields were common. They were made of wood and leather
they wore body armor made of sheets of metal overlapping for extra protection
different time periods had different styles. Initially it was popular for the armor to only protect the chest and shoulders but eventually it evolved to protect their entire upper body including torso
metal helmets were commonly used
The Pontic Scythians were commonly better equipped with armor, while those in the Altai region in the east didn’t rely on armor too much, maybe they lacked the manufacturing ability
a reconstruction of an armored Scythian is below:
Famous Battle Engagements
Queen Tomyris led her Massagetai Scythian army against Cyrus. Cyrus was defeated
years later Darius defeated the Massagetai
Darius attacked the Pontic Scythian but was defeated
The Macedonians attacked under King Philip and were victorious, killing the Scythian king
years later they attacked again under Alexander the Great but the Scythians were victorious
in the battle between Darius and Pontic Scythians, the Scythians knew they couldn’t win in open battle, so they fled for a better position, then conducted night raids and surprise attacks on Darius’s army. Once they were more confident, they went to open battle with Darius, but apparently Darius fled before the battle began
10: Of Gods, Beliefs, and Art
the Scythian were an illiterate people, they didn’t write anything down. Therefore deciphering their religious worldview comes from two sources:
their art: artifacts, body tattoos, etc
classical sources: these can be incorrect or biased
in order to get an accurate picture, we can examine what the classical sources said, and filtered them through the lens of the wider Indo-Iranian world + Scythian art
Origins Myths
both of these versions come from Herodotus
Version 1:
- the countryside was a desert. Targitaos was born into the world, whose father was Zeus. Targitaos had 3 sons. One day gold artifacts came down from the sky, and only one son, Colaxais, was able to take hold of the artifacts. When the other two sons tried to, it’d burst into flames. The three sons agreed that Colaxais shall be the high king, while the other two lesser kings
- this version explains why the Royal Scythians were ruled by 3 kings, one of whom was the main leader
Version 2:
Hercules was sleeping one night and his mares were stolen by a half-human half-snake female. To take them back, she forced him to sleep with her. They had 3 sons together. Hercules told her once they reach adult hood they should string a bow and put on a girdle the correct way. When they reached adulthood, only the youngest son, Scythes, was able to do that the correct way. From him descended the Scythian kings
there were a few other versions too, that are mainly based on the above two with slight alterations
the most correct one, which is also the story Herodotus says comes from the Scythians themselves, is version #1
it accurately reflects why there are multiple Scythian kings
Pantheon
per Herodotus Scythians worship 7 gods (Greek equivalent provided in brackets) with 3 ranks
first rank: Tabiti (Hestia)
second rank: Papaeus (Zeus), Api (Gaia)
third rank: Goetosyrus (Apollo), Argimpasa (Aphrodite), Targitaos (Hercules likely), Ares (Scythian name not given)
Tabiti
Tabiti is the flaming one, goddess of heat/fire. Similar to other Indo-Iranian traditions
the flaming objects from version 1 of the origin myth came from her. She entrusted her objects to the Scythian kings
the king is an intermediary between the goddess and the people, largely because he has a close connection to her; he is the protector of her artifacts afterall
there is no physical depiction of her; she is the representation of fire itself. A concept present in Indo-Iranian mythology like Zoroastrianism
Second Rank: Papaeus and Api
mother and father of the universe
they are binary opposites, Papaeus is the sky/father while Api is the earth or water/mother
in the Indo-Iranian tradition, the union of sky and earth gave rise to the other gods
Third Rank
Targitaos is the progenitor of the Scythian kings
Scythian Ares is the god of war, venerated in the form of an ancient sword
Goetosyrus is associated with the sun
Argimpasa is the cognate with Iranian Arti, goddess of material abundance (which is why Herodotus equates her with Aphrodite).
she is patron of fertility, having power over sovereignty and the priestly class, being served by a hereditary priesthood, the Enarees
the Enarees were the effeminate priests and shamans
Other Venerated Gods
different gods were worshipped in different Scythian regions
Thagimasadas (Poseidon) was one of these gods
Worshipping
the Scythians rarely used statues, altars, or temples. They were nomadic afterall
the god Ares may be the exception, they had specific locations where they worshipped him
cattle and horses were sacrificed to the gods
a rope was tied to their front legs to make them fall, then a rope was used to strangle them
the animal was cut up and placed into a cauldron to be boiled and cooked. It’s bones were placed into the fire
some of the cooked meat was thrown onto the ground
to the god of war Ares, 1 out of 100 prisoners of war was sacrificed
wine was poured over them, then their throat was cut and the blood poured into a vessel.
the vessel was carried to the platform and poured on the sword
the right hands and arms of the sacrificed prisoner was cut off and thrown high into the air. Wherever they land, they remain there not to be moved
Priests
the king during religious ceremonies acted as the king-priest
there was a priestly class, the Enarees, androgynous transvestites drawn from prominent families
they had the power of prophesying, taught to them by Argimpasa (Aphrodite)
the priests used rattles that had animal artifacts on them (page 274 has picture).
these were likely used to draw attention to the rite being performed
Images of the Deities
the first two ranks were never personified or depicted
some of the lower deities were like Argimpasa (Aphrodite) were depicted in artifacts
Argimpasa was commonly depicted in her four different forms
form 1: that of the mythological mother of the Scythians. She is shown as a women with snake legs. The form resembles the tree of life. Sometimes she is in birth-giving position. Sometimes she is holding vegetation. Sometimes she is holding human heads representing her relationship with human sacrifice
form 2: her hands are raised in a position of prayer and is flanked by animals. She is Mistress of the Beasts in this incarnation. She presides over plants and animals, representing her control over the natural world.
form 3: she is a winged figure holding panthers in each hand. The artifact has 8 segments, likely representing the world or universe. Argimpasa is located in one segment while animals and half-man half-beasts are in the other segments. Again she is Mistress of the Beasts in this incarnation
form 4: she is depicted sitting and facing a man who is sometimes on a horse. On her other side the tree of life is shown with 7 branches. Some interpret this as a marriage scene between goddess and the ‘hero’. See pages 279-281 for pictures
one such artifact depicts the hero waving his gorytos and another gorytos is hung on a pole. Per Herodotus, the Massagetai had a practice where when a man wanted a woman, he hangs his gorytos before her wagon
Argimpasa represented the idealized mother of the Scythian tribes
overall Argimpasa is the foremother of the Scythians, the progenitor of the founding heroes, the Mistress of Beasts and controller of the Tree of Life. She was an important Goddess for the Scythians
Animal Art
a recurring motif is that of animals living in the mountains and forest steppe
stags, felines and birds were often chosen
the deer symbolized the source of life, while the felines and birds of prey competed for the deer. Overall it represents the cycle of tension, of life struggles
often we see the predators attack the prey. Later on deer were commonly replaced by horses, while birds were replaced by winged griffins (likely Greek influence)
it may be that the deer represented the Tree of Life
stags are often depicted in a recumbent positions while felines are often depicted recoiled (see page 285)
the motif of predators attacking their prey is found everything in Scythian culture in all parts of the Steppe. It’s even found tattooed on their bodies. This shows that the idea of the ‘battle for life’ was very prevalent for the steppe people
11: The Way of Death
40 day “Tour”
this applies for both royalty and regular people
the body is placed on a cart/wagon and for 40 days the nearest relative to the deceased is responsible for carting the body around the tribe to visit various relatives and friend. Each person that is visited throws a feast and the dead person also receives a portion of the food
for kings, the body was taken to tribes under the control of the king. A “tour of tribes”
once 40 days is up, burial takes place
after burial, everyone involved purifies themselves by inhaling cannabis
the 40 days period is widely accepted in Indo-Iranian cultures
Preparation & Preserving the Body
the body is covered with wax
the stomach is cut open, emptied, and filled with galingale, incense, celery seed, and anise, and sewed up again
since the body was carried around for 40 days, sometimes more for royalty, measures needed to be put in place to preserve the body and hide the smell of putrefaction
Funeral Processions
when they king’s body is toured around, the people grieved
one sign of grieving was self-mutilation. This was more of a show of loyalty to the dead king. Loyal subjects would cut off their own fingers, etc
each tribe would throw a feast once the king’s funeral party arrived
in some Scythian societies, people would give gifts to the deceased or deceased’s family
Burial of the King
the king was buried with everything he’d need in the after-life: his concubine(s), cup-bearer, carver, equerry, attendant messenger, horses, golden bowls, and other golden items
the hope was that he’d be comfortable in his new domain and won’t interfere with the world of the living
the bigger the mound, the more important the king was
a year later, several more attendants were sacrificed and staked to sacrificed horses. They were then placed near the mound of the dead king, “on-guard” for the king
upon the kurgan mound, either a stone statue or a wooden marker was erected as a tombstone / identifier of the deceased. Below is how they generally looked like:
Cannibalism
Herodotus claimed the Issedonians and Massagetai were cannibals
“when a man’s father dies, all the relatives bring sheep to the son’s house, which are sacrificed and their flesh cut in pieces while at the same time the dead body is similarly treated. The two sorts of flesh are mixed together and served up as a banquet” - p. 308
ritual cannibalism of the Scythians is depicted on the Hereford Mappamundi:
the reason for this practice was so the family of the deceased can share in the ancestral life force. It’s similar to why blood brothers drank each other’s blood in the ceremony.
Importance of Graves
the graves/kurgan of their ancestors were very important in Scythian society. They had no towns or cities, but what they did have were tombs of their ancestors
as one Scythian king said to the Persians: “we Scythians have neither towns nor cultivated land… if you want to come to blows with us, look, these are out ancestors’ tombs. Find them and attempt to interfere with them; then you will see whether or not we will fight with you.” - p. 309
12: Scythians in the Longue Durée
longue durée = long duration
major factors contributing to why Steppe people migrate:
climate change: looking for greener pastures
the western steppe had better climate (moister and warmer)
population growth: similar to how a male lion cup, once he’s grown, leaves the pride of his parents to start his own pride
the birth of the warring/predatory nomad horseman was also due to climate change:
as their homeland became warmer and the people became free of the daily struggles of living in a harsh environment, they could turn their attention to territorial expansion and raiding
the rest of this chapter covers migrations of various people from the 2nd century BC and onwards
Wusun and Yuezhi
the expansion of the Chinese Han empire destabilized the nomadic tribes living on their borders, forcing them to migrate westwards
the two major groups to migrate were Wusun and Yuezhi.
the Yuezhi later moved south into Bactria and founded the Kushan Empire in around 135BC. They began expanding in the region and by 3rd century AD they had created a vast empire extending north to the Aral Sea and south to the Arabian Sea
Saka Migrations Southward
this in-turn destabilized the central Asian nomads, like the Saka. The Saka moved south and settled in two major areas:
southern Afghanistan/western Pakistan, eventually expanding into southern Iran and creating an area known as Sakastan (now Sistan)
India. By 80BC that setup kingdoms in the region
The Huns Enter the Scene
sometime around 160BC the Huns migrate westward (like due to growing Chinese Han empire power) and defeat the Massagetai and Saka
by the end of the 1st century AD, Roman historian Tacitus records them living near the Caspian Sea
by 370AD, the begin their expansion into Europe, driving the Saka/Sarmatians out
The Sarmatians in Europe
as discussed earlier in the book, the Sarmatians in the 4th century BC began to migrate westwards and drove out the Scythians and forced them deeper into Europe. The Sarmatians themselves likely had to begin this migration due to the Yuezhi, Wusun, and Huns encroaching on their territory
the migrations reached their height in the 2nd century BC. From this time to the first century AD is considered the Middle Sarmatian period.
various Sarmatian people of this period include Aorsi, Roxolani, Siraces, Iazyges, and Alani
the Iazyges eventually migrated into Europe and settled in the Great Hungarian Plain around 20AD
the 1st century AD was notable for many Sarmatian people migrating into Europe around Hungary and Wallachia
first the Iazyges in 20AD, then in 62AD the Roxolani replaced the Iazyges on the plain of Wallachia (the Iazyges still remain in Hungary), then the Alani came in after but away from Roxolani territory
this area (the Danube river and the borders of the Carpathians) was the Roman Empire border, therefore the Romains and Sarmatians commonly came into conflict
one Romain stone monument depicts the Romans driving out Sarmatian heavy cavalry:
eventually by around 100AD the Roman emperor Trajan conquered the region of Dacia, to stop further Sarmatian raids
the new Romain province of Dacia was ruled by the Roxolani king who was given an annual subsidy payment to stay loyal to the Roman Empire. It was a vassal state of the Romans
meanwhile, in Hungary the Iazyges flourished as allies of the Romans from 20AD-160AD, sometimes providing soldiers for the Roman army.
this isn’t to say they didn’t have conflict: sometimes they did such as when the Iazyges attacked Rome during the Dacian wars
8k Sarmatian cavalry was given to the Roman army and dispatched to Britain. A funerary monument of the Sarmatians was found in England:
the Iazyges lived in the region as a distinct culture until the 3rd century AD. The Romans viewed the Iazyges as “Sarmatia”
After 160AD the relationship between Rome and Iazyges soured.
the Iazyges attacked Roman provinces more and more often
the Huns entered the Great Hungarian Plain in 430AD, bringing Sarmatian power to an absolute end. The Sarmatians were no more.
The Alans
they were one of the Sarmatian groups of the Middle Sarmatian Period
by 68AD they were living around the Sea of Azov (northern Caucasus tip). They fought Parthians and Romans along the south Caucasus
by the 3rd century AD (early 200s) the Goths entered Ukraine and stopped nomadic migrations westwards. That is until the Huns came in 360AD and completely went through the Goths and Ostro-goths.
many of the Alans joined the Hun army, while some Huns settled deeper south in the Caucasus, while others joined the fleeing Goths and settled in the Roman empire
the Alans migrated into Europe (with the Huns) via the north route of the Carpathians, coming into contact with Germanic tribes like the Vandals. This all happened between 360AD-380AD
the Alans and Vandals in 406AD trekked through Europe devastating the Roman Empire and eventually entered and settled in Iberia. The Alans and Vandals eventually merged as one people
in 430AD the Vandals/Alan mixed people entered North Africa and Carthage
so to the sum up, the Alans left their homeland in the steppe in around 360AD. 70 years later they were living in Iberia and North Africa, with some migrating to the Caucasus as said earlier
the ones living in Iberia likely forgot their steppe culture. Many of them would’ve been born in Iberia or various parts of Europe
the expulsion of the Alans from their homeland into Europe/Caucasus marks the THE END of the Indo-European nomads of the Steppe
after them came the Turkic and Mongolian nomads who will dominate the steppes until modern times
The Alans who settled deep in the Caucasus mountains survived a very long time at least until the 13th century. Their descendants, the Ossetians, remain in the Caucasus until modern times, speaking a language in which echoes of Scytho-Sarmatian may still be heard
Analysis
Notes and Quotes
Scythian Rituals
Purification
6 wooden poles formed a framework and a felt was placed on it, like a mini tent. Inside of the tent, there was a bronze brazier containing heated stones on which hemp seeds were thrown. The fumes were inhaled as part of a purification and burial ritual - p. 46
Kurgans - p. 136
kurgans are huge raised mounds dug up to bury someone
some of them are as big as 21 meters in height
the bigger, the more important the dead person was
another sign of importance/status was how much horses, human sacrifices, and equipment/objects they were buried with
they were often many layers or chambers
the Sauromatians brought in a new type of burial: more like a catacomb style - p. 139
the Sauromatian/Sarmatian kurgans were basically crypts that were added to over time. They believed members of the same lineage should be buried together in a single family tomb. Once they felt like the burial process was complete, they sealed the entrance - p. 178
picture of a reconstruction of how kurgans may have looked before burial - p. 192
Slaves
slave-trading and slavery in general was unknown to the Scythians, until their encounter with the Greeks, who introduced them to the concept of slavery - p. 52
the Scythians, in order to participate in this new lucrative economy, did slave-raids and sold slaves to the Greeks in return for various goods
the Greeks also took slaves of Scythian origin, and these were some of the best slaves as told by Polybius and Strabo - p. 52
the Scythian slaves in mainland Greece were part of the army and urban police force, and were well respected
Anacharsis
he was a half-Scythian half-Greek philosopher. Some of his quotes:
“Laws are spiders’ webs which catch little flies but cannot hold big ones” - p. 55
About democracy, “Wise men speak, fools decide” - p. 55
Tree of Life
the tree of life is depicted on many Scythian items, such as swords and sheaths - p. 115-116
it was likely a practice taken from the Assyrians or Urartian people
it was a positive thing, a thing revered. On one sheath it is depicted with winged goddesses
Greeks and Scythians
there were many Greek colonies established around the Black Sea on the Pontic Steppe. They interacted a lot with the Scythians- p. 124
The Danger of Adopting Another’s Culture
page 128 contains a story of Scythian King Scylas in the early 5th century, who was of mixed Greek and Scythian descent. He embraced Greek culture and traditions. He kept his two lives hidden, his Greek life and Scythian. When his Scythian people found out he participated in a Greek religious ceremony, they hunted him down and beheaded him.
but around the 4th century when the Bosporus Kingdom was fully established for a while, the attitude on adopting other people’s cultural elements became positive, or at least integration became acceptable
Peoples of the Pontic-Caspian Steppe of the First Millennium BC
it was a melting pot of different peoples
nomadic horsemen came into the Steppe from Central Asia
Kimmerians in the 9th century
Scythians in the 7th century
Sauromatians in the 5th century
Roxolani/Sarmatians in the 2nd century
why did they switch so much?
they wanted the luxuries goods of the ‘civilized world’, so they needed to produce crops, furs, slaves, grains, metals, etc, in order to trade
agriculture requires a sedentary lifestyle
eventually these sedentary people would be replaced by hungrier, stronger nomadic people, who were migrating west due to climate or pressure from the powerful empires of the Near East
then the cycle continues
Status of Women
many kurgans have been excavated that were of women. Women had high status for many Steppe cultures, like the Sauromatians and Sarmatians
there were even kurgans found belonging to women that had status independent of a man, such as for a priestess - p. 194
polygyny (man marrying multiple women) was a practice commonly done by kings/men of status for alliance purposes
the king’s wives were not killed to accompany him in his grave/afterlife. Instead, the king’s concubines, slaves, and servants were killed instead
the Sauromatian women were warriors as long as they remained virgins. They had to kill 3 enemies before they could get married - p. 219
the story of the Amazons comes from the Scythian women
even the lack of one breast, which is depicted in Wonder Women and Greek story of Amazons, is historically based: Scythians mothers would cauterize their daughters’ right breast to stop it from developing so all the strength would go to the right shoulder and arm.
many Scythian women remain unmarried in old age indicating letting go of the traditionally male role was hard for some women
some Scythian tribes were led by a female warrior queen, such the Saka being led by Queen Tomyris
the group known as Issedonians had an equal sharing of power between male and female members
Main Idea of the Book
this book aims to cover a wholistic history of the Scythians, covering topics such as their societies, religion, traditions, and migration history. It covers the history of many of the prominent Scythians groups such as Sarmatians, Saka, Massagetai, and Alans
the book also covers the history of the steppe regions in general, talking about various other groups like the Huns
